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  • Play a Sound with Python

    - by Claudiu
    What's the easiest way to play a sound file (.wav) in Python? By easiest I mean both most platform independent and requiring the least dependencies. pygame is certainly an option, but it seems overkill for just sound.

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  • Python file - Want to change it to a function or a class

    - by curious2know
    Hello, I have a python program/file that I want to run repeatedly and calculate the averages of some variables over these runs. To do so, I thought it might be convenient to convert this program into a function or a class. One way I can think of is to add a def Main(): line at the top and indent every line manually within it. Is there an easier way? I am using pydev on eclipse. Thanks.

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  • Equivalent of alarm(3600) in Python

    - by knorv
    Starting a Perl script with alarm(3600) will make the script abort if it is still running after one hour (3600 seconds). Assume I want to set an upper bound on the running time of a Python script, what is the easiest way to achieve that?

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  • Get current URL in Python

    - by Alex
    How would i get the current URL with Python, I need to grab the current URL so i can check it for query strings e.g requested_url = "URL_HERE" url = urlparse(requested_url) if url[4]: params = dict([part.split('=') for part in url[4].split('&')]) also this is running in Google App Engine

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  • Python development with Emacs?

    - by ipeev
    Anybody knows some actual documentation written? I can't find anything good for any of the 2 competing mods. Looks like Emacs is pretty much abandon when it comes to Python and it is a shame as there is no other programmable programming editor that comes close to Emacs.

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  • Perl like regex in Python

    - by anansi
    In Perl I would do something like this for taking different fields in a regexp, separating different fields by () and getting them using $ foreach $line (@lines) { $line =~ m/(.*?):([^-]*)-(.*)/; $field_1 = $1 $field_2 = $2 $field_3 = $3 } How could I do something like this in Python?

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  • Python 3.2: How to pass a dictionary into str.format()

    - by Robert Dailey
    I've been reading the Python 3.2 docs about string formatting but it hasn't really helped me with this particular problem. Here is what I'm trying to do: stats = { 'copied': 5, 'skipped': 14 } print( 'Copied: {copied}, Skipped: {skipped}'.format( stats ) ) The above code will not work because the format() call is not reading the dictionary values and using those in place of my format placeholders. How can I modify my code to work with my dictionary?

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  • Python: Open() using a variable

    - by nuustik
    Good day, I've ran into a problem with opening a file with randomly generated name in Python 2.6. import random random = random.randint(1,10) localfile = file("%s","wb") % random Then I get an error message about the last line TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for %: 'file' and 'int' I just couldn't figure this out by myself nor with Google, but there has to be a cure for this, I believe. Thanks.

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  • windows stdbool.h for python module

    - by swasheck
    I found this http://stackoverflow.com/questions/25461/stdbool-h-c as an answer to "where is stdbool.h on windows?" but now need to know what to do with it. I'm actually trying to install the lazyboy python extension on windows and this is the first error that I'm receiving. So, being completely unfamiliar with this, where do I put this header file so that it's seen?

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  • python floating number

    - by zhack
    i am kind of confused why python add some additional decimal number in this case, please help to explain >>> mylist = ["list item 1", 2, 3.14] >>> print mylist ['list item 1', 2, 3.1400000000000001]

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  • Can't install MailParse on cpanel server

    - by Tom
    Hi, I've got a linux vps running CentOs 5.5 (cpanel/whm), I've installed MailParse via Module Installers section on whm, and it did install it, the end of setup log: running: make INSTALL_ROOT="/root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5" install Installing shared extensions: /root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5/usr/lib/php/extensions/no-debug-non-zts-20090626/ running: find "/root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5" | xargs ls -dils 508718 4 drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 4096 Feb 6 21:08 /root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5 508745 4 drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 4096 Feb 6 21:08 /root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5/usr 508746 4 drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 4096 Feb 6 21:08 /root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5/usr/lib 508747 4 drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 4096 Feb 6 21:08 /root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5/usr/lib/php 508748 4 drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 4096 Feb 6 21:08 /root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5/usr/lib/php/extensions 508749 4 drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Feb 6 21:08 /root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5/usr/lib/php/extensions/no-debug-non-zts-20090626 508744 196 -rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 193502 Feb 6 21:08 /root/tmp/pear-build-root/install-mailparse-2.1.5/usr/lib/php/extensions/no-debug-non-zts-20090626/mailparse.so Build process completed successfully Installing '/usr/lib/php/extensions/no-debug-non-zts-20090626/mailparse.so' install ok: channel://pecl.php.net/mailparse-2.1.5 Extension mailparse enabled in php.ini The mailparse.so object is not in /usr/local/lib/php/extensions/no-debug-non-zts-20090626 Now, when i try to use mailparse functions using php i get the following error: PHP Warning: PHP Startup: Unable to load dynamic library '/usr/local/lib/php/extensions/no-debug-non-zts-20090626/mailparse.so' - /usr/local/lib/php/extensions/no-debug-non-zts-20090626/mailparse.so: cannot open shared object file: No such file or directory in Unknown on line 0 What should i do?

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  • RuntimeError: maximum recursion depth exceeded while calling a Python object

    - by Bilal Basharat
    this error arises when i try to run the following test case which is written in models.py of my django app named 'administration' : from django.test import Client, TestCase from django.core import mail class ClientTest( TestCase ): fixtures = [ 'testdata.json' ] def test_get_register( self ): response = self.client.get( '/accounts/register/', {} ) self.assertEqual( response.status_code, 200 ) the error arises at this line specifically: response = self.client.get( '/accounts/register/', {} ) my django version is 1.2.1 and python 2.6 and satchmo version is 0.9.2-pre hg-unknown. I code in windows platform(xp sp2). The command to run test case is: python manage.py test administration the complete error log is as follow: site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 121, in by_host site = by_host(host=host[4:], id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 124, in by_host site = by_host(host = 'www.%s' % host, id_only=id_only) File "build\bdist.win32\egg\threaded_multihost\sites.py", line 101, in by_host site = Site.objects.get(domain=host) File "C:\django\django\db\models\manager.py", line 132, in get return self.get_query_set().get(*args, **kwargs) File "C:\django\django\db\models\query.py", line 336, in get num = len(clone) File "C:\django\django\db\models\query.py", line 81, in __len__ self._result_cache = list(self.iterator()) File "C:\django\django\db\models\query.py", line 269, in iterator for row in compiler.results_iter(): File "C:\django\django\db\models\sql\compiler.py", line 672, in results_iter for rows in self.execute_sql(MULTI): File "C:\django\django\db\models\sql\compiler.py", line 717, in execute_sql sql, params = self.as_sql() File "C:\django\django\db\models\sql\compiler.py", line 65, in as_sql where, w_params = self.query.where.as_sql(qn=qn, connection=self.connection) File "C:\django\django\db\models\sql\where.py", line 91, in as_sql sql, params = child.as_sql(qn=qn, connection=connection) File "C:\django\django\db\models\sql\where.py", line 94, in as_sql sql, params = self.make_atom(child, qn, connection) File "C:\django\django\db\models\sql\where.py", line 141, in make_atom lvalue, params = lvalue.process(lookup_type, params_or_value, connection) File "C:\django\django\db\models\sql\where.py", line 312, in process connection=connection, prepared=True) File "C:\django\django\db\models\fields\subclassing.py", line 53, in inner return func(*args, **kwargs) File "C:\django\django\db\models\fields\subclassing.py", line 53, in inner return func(*args, **kwargs) File "C:\django\django\db\models\fields\__init__.py", line 323, in get_db_prep _lookup return [self.get_db_prep_value(value, connection=connection, prepared=prepar ed)] File "C:\django\django\db\models\fields\subclassing.py", line 53, in inner return func(*args, **kwargs) File "C:\django\django\db\models\fields\subclassing.py", line 53, in inner return func(*args, **kwargs) RuntimeError: maximum recursion depth exceeded while calling a Python object ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Ran 7 tests in 48.453s FAILED (errors=1) Destroying test database 'default'...

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  • Which mailx package should I install for Nagios?

    - by user1196
    I'm following the Nagios Ubuntu quickstart instructions. I'm on Ubuntu 10.10 and installing Nagios 3.2.3. At the bottom of the docs it says I need to install the mailx and postfix packages. (Postfix is already installed.) But when I try to install mailx, I get asked which of 3 packages to install: $ sudo apt-get install mailx [sudo] password for nagios: Reading package lists... Done Building dependency tree Reading state information... Done Package mailx is a virtual package provided by: mailutils 1:2.1+dfsg1-4ubuntu1 heirloom-mailx 12.4-1.1 bsd-mailx 8.1.2-0.20090911cvs-2ubuntu1 You should explicitly select one to install. E: Package mailx has no installation candidate Which one should I install?

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  • apt-get install problem: Errors were encountered while processing: sun-j2sdk1.6

    - by pyeleven
    I have the following problem every time i run apt-get install: for example : installing python-django-south ... Unpacking python-django-south (from .../python-django-south_0.5-2_all.deb) ... Setting up sun-j2sdk1.6 (1.6.0+update22-linux-i586.) ... update-alternatives: error: alternative path /usr/lib/j2sdk1.6-sun/jre/plugin/amd64/ns7/libjavaplugin_oji.so doesn't exist. dpkg: error processing sun-j2sdk1.6 (--configure): subprocess installed post-installation script returned error exit status 2 Setting up python-django-south (0.5-2) ... Processing triggers for python-support ... Errors were encountered while processing: sun-j2sdk1.6 E: Sub-process /usr/bin/dpkg returned an error code (1) What could be the problem? I have 9.10 Ubuntu

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  • Top Tips and Tricks Documents for Oracle Install Base

    - by Oracle_EBS
     EBS Install Base Implementer?  Consider the following references as identified by Oracle Install Base Engineers as our Top Tips and Tricks knowledge documents. Top Install Base Tips and Tricks Documents Troubleshoot: Oracle Install Base (Doc ID 1351860.1) How to Use Installed Base Error Transaction Diagnostics Script IBtxnerr.sql (Doc ID 365697.1) Cannot See Customer Product Instance in Installed Base after Item is Shipped (Doc ID 1309943.1) How To Obtain the CSE/CSI Log and Debug Files For Your Oracle Support Engineer (Doc ID 239627.1) Troubleshooting Install Base Errors in the Transaction Errors Processing Form (Doc ID 577978.1) How to Solve Installed Base Error Transactions Using Installed Base Data Correction and Synchronization Program (Doc ID 734933.1) Common Installed Base Transaction Error Messages (Doc ID 856825.1) Install Base Transaction Errors Master Repository (Doc ID 1289858.1) How To Remove Extended Attributes From IB? (Doc ID 1357667.1) 

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  • how to apt-get install with only minimal components necessary for an application

    - by ib84
    apt-get is really great. However, when you want to install an application, you often are forced to install a lot of dependencies which I believe are very often optional. For example, I want to install okular and I'm ask to install 97 packages / 233MB ! That is a lot. I particularly dislike that it wants me to install nepomuk and a lot of other stuff that has nothing to do with PDF viewing per se, and which implies demons, and many of which are clearly optional but not necessary. Question: How to do minimal install with apt-get for a given package, with only the necessary componentents to get the thing run? It's ok if some features disabled at first.

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  • I have a very long and repetitive python path, where do I look to correct this?

    - by ninja123
    I know it is probably not necessary to paste the whole path, but just for the record I have done so below. Whenever I run a python command, it takes a long time to load this path I suppose. I have checked in .bash_profile and only have these two lines: export PATH=/Users/username/bin:/opt/local/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/2.5/bin:/opt/local/bin:/opt/local/sbin:/opt/local/apache2/bin:$PATH export PYTHONPATH=/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/ And my python path as outputed by Django's debug is: Python path : ['/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/ipython-0.10-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/South-0.6.1-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/django_markitup-0.5.2-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/DateTime-2.12.0-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/Markdown-2.0.3-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/PIL-1.1.7-py2.5-macosx-10.5-i386.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/djangorecipe-0.20-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/zc.recipe.egg-1.2.3b2-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/zc.buildout-1.5.0b2-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/pytz-2010h-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/zope.interface-3.6.1-py2.5-macosx-10.5-i386.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/eggs/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/parts/django', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster', '/Users/username/Sites/videocluster/bin', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools_git-0.3.3-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/pysqlite-2.5.5-py2.5-macosx-10.5-i386.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/CouchDB-0.5-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/httplib2-0.4.0-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/PyYAML-3.08-py2.5-macosx-10.5-i386.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/simple_db_migrate-1.2.8-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/PyDispatcher-2.0.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/pyOpenSSL-0.9-py2.5-macosx-10.5-i386.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/greenlet-0.2-py2.5-macosx-10.5-i386.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/Supay-0.0.2-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/configobj-4.6.0-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/Fabric-0.9b1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/fudge-0.9.3-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/pydelicious-0.5.3-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/feedparser-4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/github_cli-0.2.5.2-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/simplejson-2.0.9-py2.5-macosx-10.5-i386.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', ......(repeating)....... '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', 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'/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', ......(repeating)....... '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/setuptools-0.6c11-py2.5.egg', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/zc.buildout-1.4.1-py2.5.egg', 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'/opt/local/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/2.5/lib/python2.5/lib-tk', '/opt/local/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/2.5/lib/python2.5/lib-dynload', '/opt/local/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/2.5/lib/python2.5/site-packages/Numeric', '/opt/local/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/2.5/lib/python2.5/site-packages/PIL', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/PIL', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', ......(repeating)....... '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0', '/opt/local/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/2.5/lib/python2.5/site-packages/gtk-2.0'] Someone, please tell me where I can go to correct this. Thanks

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  • Python: Improving long cumulative sum

    - by Bo102010
    I have a program that operates on a large set of experimental data. The data is stored as a list of objects that are instances of a class with the following attributes: time_point - the time of the sample cluster - the name of the cluster of nodes from which the sample was taken code - the name of the node from which the sample was taken qty1 = the value of the sample for the first quantity qty2 = the value of the sample for the second quantity I need to derive some values from the data set, grouped in three ways - once for the sample as a whole, once for each cluster of nodes, and once for each node. The values I need to derive depend on the (time sorted) cumulative sums of qty1 and qty2: the maximum value of the element-wise sum of the cumulative sums of qty1 and qty2, the time point at which that maximum value occurred, and the values of qty1 and qty2 at that time point. I came up with the following solution: dataset.sort(key=operator.attrgetter('time_point')) # For the whole set sys_qty1 = 0 sys_qty2 = 0 sys_combo = 0 sys_max = 0 # For the cluster grouping cluster_qty1 = defaultdict(int) cluster_qty2 = defaultdict(int) cluster_combo = defaultdict(int) cluster_max = defaultdict(int) cluster_peak = defaultdict(int) # For the node grouping node_qty1 = defaultdict(int) node_qty2 = defaultdict(int) node_combo = defaultdict(int) node_max = defaultdict(int) node_peak = defaultdict(int) for t in dataset: # For the whole system ###################################################### sys_qty1 += t.qty1 sys_qty2 += t.qty2 sys_combo = sys_qty1 + sys_qty2 if sys_combo > sys_max: sys_max = sys_combo # The Peak class is to record the time point and the cumulative quantities system_peak = Peak(time_point=t.time_point, qty1=sys_qty1, qty2=sys_qty2) # For the cluster grouping ################################################## cluster_qty1[t.cluster] += t.qty1 cluster_qty2[t.cluster] += t.qty2 cluster_combo[t.cluster] = cluster_qty1[t.cluster] + cluster_qty2[t.cluster] if cluster_combo[t.cluster] > cluster_max[t.cluster]: cluster_max[t.cluster] = cluster_combo[t.cluster] cluster_peak[t.cluster] = Peak(time_point=t.time_point, qty1=cluster_qty1[t.cluster], qty2=cluster_qty2[t.cluster]) # For the node grouping ##################################################### node_qty1[t.node] += t.qty1 node_qty2[t.node] += t.qty2 node_combo[t.node] = node_qty1[t.node] + node_qty2[t.node] if node_combo[t.node] > node_max[t.node]: node_max[t.node] = node_combo[t.node] node_peak[t.node] = Peak(time_point=t.time_point, qty1=node_qty1[t.node], qty2=node_qty2[t.node]) This produces the correct output, but I'm wondering if it can be made more readable/Pythonic, and/or faster/more scalable. The above is attractive in that it only loops through the (large) dataset once, but unattractive in that I've essentially copied/pasted three copies of the same algorithm. To avoid the copy/paste issues of the above, I tried this also: def find_peaks(level, dataset): def grouping(object, attr_name): if attr_name == 'system': return attr_name else: return object.__dict__[attrname] cuml_qty1 = defaultdict(int) cuml_qty2 = defaultdict(int) cuml_combo = defaultdict(int) level_max = defaultdict(int) level_peak = defaultdict(int) for t in dataset: cuml_qty1[grouping(t, level)] += t.qty1 cuml_qty2[grouping(t, level)] += t.qty2 cuml_combo[grouping(t, level)] = (cuml_qty1[grouping(t, level)] + cuml_qty2[grouping(t, level)]) if cuml_combo[grouping(t, level)] > level_max[grouping(t, level)]: level_max[grouping(t, level)] = cuml_combo[grouping(t, level)] level_peak[grouping(t, level)] = Peak(time_point=t.time_point, qty1=node_qty1[grouping(t, level)], qty2=node_qty2[grouping(t, level)]) return level_peak system_peak = find_peaks('system', dataset) cluster_peak = find_peaks('cluster', dataset) node_peak = find_peaks('node', dataset) For the (non-grouped) system-level calculations, I also came up with this, which is pretty: dataset.sort(key=operator.attrgetter('time_point')) def cuml_sum(seq): rseq = [] t = 0 for i in seq: t += i rseq.append(t) return rseq time_get = operator.attrgetter('time_point') q1_get = operator.attrgetter('qty1') q2_get = operator.attrgetter('qty2') timeline = [time_get(t) for t in dataset] cuml_qty1 = cuml_sum([q1_get(t) for t in dataset]) cuml_qty2 = cuml_sum([q2_get(t) for t in dataset]) cuml_combo = [q1 + q2 for q1, q2 in zip(cuml_qty1, cuml_qty2)] combo_max = max(cuml_combo) time_max = timeline.index(combo_max) q1_at_max = cuml_qty1.index(time_max) q2_at_max = cuml_qty2.index(time_max) However, despite this version's cool use of list comprehensions and zip(), it loops through the dataset three times just for the system-level calculations, and I can't think of a good way to do the cluster-level and node-level calaculations without doing something slow like: timeline = defaultdict(int) cuml_qty1 = defaultdict(int) #...etc. for c in cluster_list: timeline[c] = [time_get(t) for t in dataset if t.cluster == c] cuml_qty1[c] = [q1_get(t) for t in dataset if t.cluster == c] #...etc. Does anyone here at Stack Overflow have suggestions for improvements? The first snippet above runs well for my initial dataset (on the order of a million records), but later datasets will have more records and clusters/nodes, so scalability is a concern. This is my first non-trivial use of Python, and I want to make sure I'm taking proper advantage of the language (this is replacing a very convoluted set of SQL queries, and earlier versions of the Python version were essentially very ineffecient straight transalations of what that did). I don't normally do much programming, so I may be missing something elementary. Many thanks!

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  • Python dictionary key missing

    - by Greg K
    I thought I'd put together a quick script to consolidate the CSS rules I have distributed across multiple CSS files, then I can minify it. I'm new to Python but figured this would be a good exercise to try a new language. My main loop isn't parsing the CSS as I thought it would. I populate a list with selectors parsed from the CSS files to return the CSS rules in order. Later in the script, the list contains an element that is not found in the dictionary. for line in self.file.readlines(): if self.hasSelector(line): selector = self.getSelector(line) if selector not in self.order: self.order.append(selector) elif selector and self.hasProperty(line): # rules.setdefault(selector,[]).append(self.getProperty(line)) property = self.getProperty(line) properties = [] if selector not in rules else rules[selector] if property not in properties: properties.append(property) rules[selector] = properties # print "%s :: %s" % (selector, "".join(rules[selector])) return rules Error encountered: $ css-combine combined.css test1.css test2.css Traceback (most recent call last): File "css-combine", line 108, in <module> c.run(outfile, stylesheets) File "css-combine", line 64, in run [(selector, rules[selector]) for selector in parser.order], KeyError: 'p' Swap the inputs: $ css-combine combined.css test2.css test1.css Traceback (most recent call last): File "css-combine", line 108, in <module> c.run(outfile, stylesheets) File "css-combine", line 64, in run [(selector, rules[selector]) for selector in parser.order], KeyError: '#header_.title' I've done some quirky things in the code like sub spaces for underscores in dictionary key names in case it was an issue - maybe this is a benign precaution? Depending on the order of the inputs, a different key cannot be found in the dictionary. The script: #!/usr/bin/env python import optparse import re class CssParser: def __init__(self): self.file = False self.order = [] # store rules assignment order def parse(self, rules = {}): if self.file == False: raise IOError("No file to parse") selector = False for line in self.file.readlines(): if self.hasSelector(line): selector = self.getSelector(line) if selector not in self.order: self.order.append(selector) elif selector and self.hasProperty(line): # rules.setdefault(selector,[]).append(self.getProperty(line)) property = self.getProperty(line) properties = [] if selector not in rules else rules[selector] if property not in properties: properties.append(property) rules[selector] = properties # print "%s :: %s" % (selector, "".join(rules[selector])) return rules def hasSelector(self, line): return True if re.search("^([#a-z,\.:\s]+){", line) else False def getSelector(self, line): s = re.search("^([#a-z,:\.\s]+){", line).group(1) return "_".join(s.strip().split()) def hasProperty(self, line): return True if re.search("^\s?[a-z-]+:[^;]+;", line) else False def getProperty(self, line): return re.search("([a-z-]+:[^;]+;)", line).group(1) class Consolidator: """Class to consolidate CSS rule attributes""" def run(self, outfile, files): parser = CssParser() rules = {} for file in files: try: parser.file = open(file) rules = parser.parse(rules) except IOError: print "Cannot read file: " + file finally: parser.file.close() self.serialize( [(selector, rules[selector]) for selector in parser.order], outfile ) def serialize(self, rules, outfile): try: f = open(outfile, "w") for rule in rules: f.write( "%s {\n\t%s\n}\n\n" % ( " ".join(rule[0].split("_")), "\n\t".join(rule[1]) ) ) except IOError: print "Cannot write output to: " + outfile finally: f.close() def init(): op = optparse.OptionParser( usage="Usage: %prog [options] <output file> <stylesheet1> " + "<stylesheet2> ... <stylesheetN>", description="Combine CSS rules spread across multiple " + "stylesheets into a single file" ) opts, args = op.parse_args() if len(args) < 3: if len(args) == 1: print "Error: No input files specified.\n" elif len(args) == 2: print "Error: One input file specified, nothing to combine.\n" op.print_help(); exit(-1) return [opts, args] if __name__ == '__main__': opts, args = init() outfile, stylesheets = [args[0], args[1:]] c = Consolidator() c.run(outfile, stylesheets) Test CSS file 1: body { background-color: #e7e7e7; } p { margin: 1em 0em; } File 2: body { font-size: 16px; } #header .title { font-family: Tahoma, Geneva, sans-serif; font-size: 1.9em; } #header .title a, #header .title a:hover { color: #f5f5f5; border-bottom: none; text-shadow: 2px 2px 3px rgba(0, 0, 0, 1); } Thanks in advance.

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  • globals and locals in python exec()

    - by hawkettc
    Hi, I'm trying to run a piece of python code using exec. my_code = """ class A(object): pass print 'locals: %s' % locals() print 'A: %s' % A class B(object): a_ref = A """ global_env = {} local_env = {} my_code_AST = compile(my_code, "My Code", "exec") exec(my_code_AST, global_env, local_env) print local_env which results in the following output locals: {'A': <class 'A'>} A: <class 'A'> Traceback (most recent call last): File "python_test.py", line 16, in <module> exec(my_code_AST, global_env, local_env) File "My Code", line 8, in <module> File "My Code", line 9, in B NameError: name 'A' is not defined However, if I change the code to this - my_code = """ class A(object): pass print 'locals: %s' % locals() print 'A: %s' % A class B(A): pass """ global_env = {} local_env = {} my_code_AST = compile(my_code, "My Code", "exec") exec(my_code_AST, global_env, local_env) print local_env then it works fine - giving the following output - locals: {'A': <class 'A'>} A: <class 'A'> {'A': <class 'A'>, 'B': <class 'B'>} Clearly A is present and accessible - what's going wrong in the first piece of code? I'm using 2.6.5, cheers, Colin * UPDATE 1 * If I check the locals() inside the class - my_code = """ class A(object): pass print 'locals: %s' % locals() print 'A: %s' % A class B(object): print locals() a_ref = A """ global_env = {} local_env = {} my_code_AST = compile(my_code, "My Code", "exec") exec(my_code_AST, global_env, local_env) print local_env Then it becomes clear that locals() is not the same in both places - locals: {'A': <class 'A'>} A: <class 'A'> {'__module__': '__builtin__'} Traceback (most recent call last): File "python_test.py", line 16, in <module> exec(my_code_AST, global_env, local_env) File "My Code", line 8, in <module> File "My Code", line 10, in B NameError: name 'A' is not defined However, if I do this, there is no problem - def f(): class A(object): pass class B(object): a_ref = A f() print 'Finished OK' * UPDATE 2 * ok, so the docs here - http://docs.python.org/reference/executionmodel.html 'A class definition is an executable statement that may use and define names. These references follow the normal rules for name resolution. The namespace of the class definition becomes the attribute dictionary of the class. Names defined at the class scope are not visible in methods.' It seems to me that 'A' should be made available as a free variable within the executable statement that is the definition of B, and this happens when we call f(), but not when we use exec(). This can be more easily shown with the following - my_code = """ class A(object): pass print 'locals in body: %s' % locals() print 'A: %s' % A def f(): print 'A in f: %s' % A f() class B(object): a_ref = A """ which outputs locals in body: {'A': <class 'A'>} A: <class 'A'> Traceback (most recent call last): File "python_test.py", line 20, in <module> exec(my_code_AST, global_env, local_env) File "My Code", line 11, in <module> File "My Code", line 9, in f NameError: global name 'A' is not defined So I guess the new question is - why aren't those locals being exposed as free variables in functions and class definitions - it seems like a pretty standard closure scenario.

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