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• Understanding the Linux Root

  - by Zac

  I've been using Linux (Ubuntu) for about 2 weeks now and am still struggling with some basic concept surrounding the root user: (1) Some terminal operations (such as making subdirectories inside a FHS directory such as /opt) require me to prefix the command with sudo - why? I guess what I'm choking on is: if I'm already logged in as a valid system user, why do I have to be a superuser/root in order to modify things that the sysadmin has already deemed me worthy of accessing? (2) Is there a GUI (Gnome, KDE) equivalent to sudo? Is there a way to assume a superuser role through a graphical context, rather than from inside a new shell? (3) I can't access the /root directory logged in as myself... but I installed the system to begin with and was never asked to create a root account! How do I log in as root and gain access to /root?!? Thanks for all feedback & input!

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• Understanding the Linux Root

  - by Zac

  I've been using Linux (Ubuntu) for about 2 weeks now and am still struggling with some basic concept surrounding the root user: (1) Some terminal operations (such as making subdirectories inside a FHS directory such as /opt) require me to prefix the command with sudo - why? I guess what I'm choking on is: if I'm already logged in as a valid system user, why do I have to be a superuser/root in order to modify things that the sysadmin has already deemed me worthy of accessing? (2) Is there a GUI (Gnome, KDE) equivalent to sudo? Is there a way to assume a superuser role through a graphical context, rather than from inside a new shell? (3) I can't access the /root directory logged in as myself... but I installed the system to begin with and was never asked to create a root account! How do I log in as root and gain access to /root?!? Thanks for all feedback & input!

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• Understanding an Application based on the OS interaction with a Hypervisor

  - by Dewy

  Following I will ask a few specific questions but I will set the stage first. My goal is to monitor Applications in a very odd place - between the OS and a Hypervisor. If you have comments about this probably unachievable goal please do educate me. One good advice or link can save me days of work. Now to my current attempt. I installed on WinXP a VirtualBox (being open-source) and got a guest OS of latest Ubuntu running within. Where should I go next? Can I set the logs to show all memory/CPU/disk instructions of the guest OS? Thanks, Dewy

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• Understanding packet flows over RVI

  - by choco-loo

  I'm trying to get a full grasp of firewall filters and how to apply them on a Juniper EX4200 switch - to be able to block ports, police traffic and shape traffic. The network architecture is as follows internet >-< vlan4000 >-< vlan43 vlan4000 is a public "routed" block (where all the IPs are routed to and the internet gw is) vlan43 is a vlan with public IPs with devices (servers) attached There are static routes and RVI's on the EX4200 to send all traffic via vlan4000's gateway to reach the internet. I've set up filters on both input and output of the respective RVI's and VLAN's - with simple counters, to measure traffic flow from a server inside of vlan43 and a server on the internet. Using a combination of iperf for UDP and TCP tests and fping for ICMP tests - I observed the following, icmp vlan43>internet internet>vlan43 unit4000-counter-in 0 0 unit4000-counter-out 0 0 unit43-counter-in 100 100 unit43-counter-out 0 0 vlan4000-counter-in 6 4 vlan4000-counter-out 107 104 vlan43-counter-in 101 100 vlan43-counter-out 100 100 tcp vlan43>internet internet>vlan43 unit4000-counter-in 0 0 unit4000-counter-out 0 0 unit43-counter-in 73535 38480 unit43-counter-out 0 0 vlan4000-counter-in 7 8 vlan4000-counter-out 73543 38489 vlan43-counter-in 73535 38481 vlan43-counter-out 38938 75880 udp vlan43>internet internet>vlan43 unit4000-counter-in 0 0 unit4000-counter-out 0 0 unit43-counter-in 81410 1 unit43-counter-out 0 0 vlan4000-counter-in 18 7 vlan4000-counter-out 81429 8 vlan43-counter-in 81411 1 vlan43-counter-out 1 85472 My key goals are to set up a few filters and policers, as there will be many more VLANs - that all need protecting from each other and the internet. Then globally limit/police all outbound traffic to the internet Block inbound ports to vlan43 (eg. 22) Limit outbound traffic from vlan43 (to the internet) Limit outbound traffic from vlan43 (to other vlans) Limit outbound traffic from vlan4000 (to the internet from all vlans) Route traffic from vlans via specific routing instances (FBF) The question What I want to understand is why there isn't ever any activity on unit4000 or vlan4000 inbound or outbound counter - is this because there isn't a device on this VLAN - and that the traffic is only traversing it? And with regards to the TCP test - why is there twice as many packets on unit43-counter-in, vlan4000-counter-out and vlan43-counter-in - is this counting both the inbound and outbound traffic?

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• Understanding Exchange User Monitor (ExMon) Output

  - by SturdyErde

  I recently downloaded and ran ExMon while trying to troubleshoot Outlook connectivity problems due to high CPU usage on Exchange Server 2010 SP2 UR8. The tool provides a great set of data, but I have not yet figured out how to make great use of it. My first question is why the Exchange Server itself shows up as a high-use MAPI client in the ExMon data. Among the users' client versions I see build numbers listed for Outlook 2013, 2010, and yes, even 2007 clients. I also see build number 14.2.387.0, which represents Exchange Server 2010 SP2 Update Rollup 8 (+/- some other patch that makes it not quite match the UR8 number). There are many user rows that list only "::1" and/or the short hostname of my Exchange server in the 'Client IP Addresses' column. Some other columns include the end-user's actual IP address and the Exchange server's IP address. ExMon shows that it is actually Exchange Server that is utilizing the highest percentage of CPU that is used for MAPI calls. I had expected to see 1 IP address and version number for each user reported by ExMon. Instead, most records show multiple version #'s (Exchange ver and Outlook ver) and multiple IPs (Exchange IP and client IP). Can anyone explain the reason for this to me, please?

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• Understanding List formatting in MSWord

  - by John

  I've never understood how formatting works in MSWord for lists... it mostly just works but sometimes becomes incredibly stubborn about enforcing styles you don't want, especially when copy-pasting into a list and working with multiple, multi-layer lists. What are some good ways to understand how it works, so one can work with Word, instead of fighting against it? Here's an example... I want a list like: 1)first test CHECK: a)something b)another thing 2)another test CHECK: a)it works b)it doesn't crash I find Word really doesn't like this... I try creating one mini-list and copy pasting but typically the numbering on the sub-lists doesn't re-start automatically, etc. I'm using Word 2007 but I remember it being this way in earlier versions too.

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• Understanding NFS4 exports and pseudofilesystem

  - by Trevor Harrison

  I think I understand the way pre-NFS4 exports work, specifically the namespace of the exported point. (ie. export /mnt/blah on server, use mount server:/mnt/blah /my/mnt/point on client) However, I'm having a hard time wrapping my head around NFS4 exports. What I've been able to gather so far is that you export a 'root' by marking it with fsid=0, which you then import on the client side by referring to it as '/'. (ie. exportfs -o fsid=0 /mnt/blah on server, mount server:/ on client) However, after that, it gets a little weird. From my playing around, it seems I can't export anything else thats not under /mnt/blah. For example, exportfs /home/user1 fails when trying to mount from the client unless /mnt/blah/home/user1 exists on the server. If this is the case, what is the difference between exportfs /mnt/blah/subdir1 on server and mount server:/subdir1 on client and just skipping the exportfs and mounting whatever subdir of /mnt/blah you want? Why would you need to export anything other than the root? Its all in the same namespace anyway.

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• Tuning (and understanding) table_cache in mySQL

  - by jotango

  Hello, I ran the excellent MySQL performance tuning script and started to work through the suggestions. One I ran into was TABLE CACHE Current table_cache value = 4096 tables You have a total of 1073 tables. You have 3900 open tables. Current table_cache hit rate is 2%, while 95% of your table cache is in use. You should probably increase your table_cache I started to read up on the table_cache but found the MySQL documentation quite lacking. They do say to increase the table_cache, "if you have the memory". Unfortunately the table_cache variable is defined as "The number of open tables for all threads." How will the memory used by MySQL change, if I increase this variable? What is a good value, to set it to?

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• Understanding top output in Linux

  - by Rayne

  Hi, I'm trying to determine the CPU usage of a program by looking at the output from Top in Linux. I understand that %us means userspace and %sy means system/kernel etc. But say I see 100%us. Does this mean that the CPU is really only doing useful work? What if a CPU is tied up waiting for resources that are not avaliable, or cache misses, would it also show up in the %us column, or any other column? Thank you.

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• Understanding DHCP setting for DNS Server Options and Scope Options

  - by Saariko

  I have installed 2 DC's on my network (W2K8 R2) both serve as a replicate DC on my domain. On one of them (DC1) there is also a DHCP server running. On both I have a DNS server running. I am trying to understand the difference in the settings within the DHCP of Server Options and Scope Options. As I understand it: On the server options, I should put an external DNS for system (lets say 8.8.8.8 - google) And on the scope options, I should put both my internal dc1 and dc2 IP's as the server. - which are than distributed to my domain clients. Is that correct? Is there a better way? Do I need to add loopback address as well?

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• Understanding Unix "Expect"

  - by zchtodd

  I don't think I properly understand the "expect" utility. While searching for a way to automate a build process that involves jar signing, I came across expect, and thought I could use it to supply a password to jarsigner (whether having a password in a shell script is a good idea I understand the risks of). expect "Enter Passphrase for keystore:" Instead of catching this, the jarsigner sat waiting at that line. Am I completely misunderstanding the point of "expect" and if I am, what can I use to achieve this effect?

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• Understanding encryption Keys

  - by claws

  Hello, I'm really embarrassed to ask this question but its the fact that I don't know anything about encryption. I always avoided it. I don't understand the concept of encryption keys (public key, private key, RSA key, DSA key, PGP Key, SSH key & what not) . I did encounter these in regular basis but as I said I always avoided them. Here are few instances where I encountered: Creating Account: A public RSA or DSA key will be needed for an account. Send the key along with your desired account name to [email protected] I really don't know what are RSA/DSA or How to get their keys? Do I need to register some where for that? Mailing: I'm unable to recall exactly but I've seen some mails have some attachments like signature or the mail footer will have something called PGP signature etc.. I really don't get its concept. GIT Version control: I created account in assembla.com (for private GIT repo) and it asked me to enter "SSH keys" to my profile. Where am I gonna get these? Why do I need it? Isn't SSH related to remote login (like remote desktop or telnet)? How are these two SSHs related & differ? I don't know in how many more situations I'm going to encounter these things. I'm really confused and have no clue about where to start & how to proceed to learn these things. Kindly someone point me in correct direction. Note: I've absolutely zero interested in encryption related topics. So, there is no way I'm going to read a graduate level book on this subject. I just want to clear my concepts without going into much depth.

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• Understanding the nop byte(s)

  - by Cole Johnson

  Ok, so I was reading through the AMD64 manuels and knowing that nop is really an xchg eax, eax, I looked at the xchg and found something interesting, that it seems a byte can be encoded into the instruction for specifying the registers (apologies I'm on my iPod): picture. So what I am wondering is how does the processor know if there is a byte after to work with or is it that that extra register has to be of type rAX causing it to actually still be the one byte 0x90

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• Understanding tcptraceroute versus http response

  - by kojiro

  I'm debugging a web server that has a very high wait time before responding. The server itself is quite fast and has no load, so I strongly suspect a network problem. Basically, I make a web request: wget -O/dev/null http://hostname/ --2013-10-18 11:03:08-- http://hostname/ Resolving hostname... 10.9.211.129 Connecting to hostname|10.9.211.129|:80... connected. HTTP request sent, awaiting response... 200 OK Length: unspecified [text/html] Saving to: ‘/dev/null’ 2013-10-18 11:04:11 (88.0 KB/s) - ‘/dev/null’ saved [13641] So you see it took about a minute to give me the page, but it does give it to me with a 200 response. So I try a tcptraceroute to see what's up: $ sudo tcptraceroute hostname 80 Password: Selected device en2, address 192.168.113.74, port 54699 for outgoing packets Tracing the path to hostname (10.9.211.129) on TCP port 80 (http), 30 hops max 1 192.168.113.1 0.842 ms 2.216 ms 2.130 ms 2 10.141.12.77 0.707 ms 0.767 ms 0.738 ms 3 10.141.12.33 1.227 ms 1.012 ms 1.120 ms 4 10.141.3.107 0.372 ms 0.305 ms 0.368 ms 5 12.112.4.41 6.688 ms 6.514 ms 6.467 ms 6 cr84.phlpa.ip.att.net (12.122.107.214) 19.892 ms 18.814 ms 15.804 ms 7 cr2.phlpa.ip.att.net (12.122.107.117) 17.554 ms 15.693 ms 16.122 ms 8 cr1.wswdc.ip.att.net (12.122.4.54) 15.838 ms 15.353 ms 15.511 ms 9 cr83.wswdc.ip.att.net (12.123.10.110) 17.451 ms 15.183 ms 16.198 ms 10 12.84.5.93 9.982 ms 9.817 ms 9.784 ms 11 12.84.5.94 14.587 ms 14.301 ms 14.238 ms 12 10.141.3.209 13.870 ms 13.845 ms 13.696 ms 13 * * * … 30 * * * I tried it again with 100 hops, just to be sure – the packets never get there. So how is it that the server does respond to requests via http, even after a minute? Shouldn't all requests just die? I'm not sure how to proceed debugging why this server is slow (as opposed to why it responds at all).

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• Understanding RedHats recommended tuned profiles

  - by espenfjo

  We are going to roll out tuned (and numad) on ~1000 servers, the majority of them being VMware servers either on NetApp or 3Par storage. According to RedHats documentation we should choose the virtual-guestprofile. What it is doing can be seen here: tuned.conf We are changing the IO scheduler to NOOP as both VMware and the NetApp/3Par should do sufficient scheduling for us. However, after investigating a bit I am not sure why they are increasing vm.dirty_ratio and kernel.sched_min_granularity_ns. As far as I have understood increasing increasing vm.dirty_ratio to 40% will mean that for a server with 20GB ram, 8GB can be dirty at any given time unless vm.dirty_writeback_centisecsis hit first. And while flushing these 8GB all IO for the application will be blocked until the dirty pages are freed. Increasing the dirty_ratio would probably mean higher write performance at peaks as we now have a larger cache, but then again when the cache fills IO will be blocked for a considerably longer time (Several seconds). The other is why they are increasing the sched_min_granularity_ns. If I understand it correctly increasing this value will decrease the number of time slices per epoch(sched_latency_ns) meaning that running tasks will get more time to finish their work. I can understand this being a very good thing for applications with very few threads, but for eg. apache or other processes with a lot of threads would this not be counter-productive?

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• Understanding how IE's SmartScreen works

  - by Kevin Donn

  Today I downloaded an update to our mail server on my dev machine using IE9 on Win7 Pro. I directed IE to save the file on our server's shared drive so I could install it later. When the download finished, IE showed a red banner at the bottom and said that, ".exe is not commonly downloaded and could harm your computer." There were three buttons, "Delete", "Actions", and "View downloads". I selected "Actions" just because I had never seen this before. It showed a "SmartScreen Filter" dialog basically giving three choices: "Don't run this program (recommended)", "Delete program", and "Run anyway". I just canceled the dialog because I didn't want to run it in the first place; I just wanted to download it so I could run it later on the server. So when I did try to run it, it would blow up immediately saying, "Setup was unable to create the directory - Error 5: Access is denied." I tried unblocking the file, "Run as Administrator" even though I already was Administrator, turning off UAC, etc. Cutting to the chase, I finally downloaded the file again, ran WinMerge on the two and it showed they were identical, except the new one ran fine. I went back to my dev machine, downloaded the file through Firefox and then ran it on the server, again fine. But when I tried again through IE, again SmartScreen showed its red banner and somehow clobbered the file even though it was stored on another machine, and WinMerge can't tell the difference between it and a good file. I've looked around on the web for how SmartScreen works, but they all give user-level descriptions of it. What I want to know is, what does it do to that file to make it unrunnable on another machine? Thanks

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• understanding mount -o bind

  - by Ionut

  Few questions after the following commands: mount -o bind /new_disk/home/user/ /home/user/ mount -o bind --no-mtab /new_disk/home/user/ /home/user/ What is the difference between the two commands other than " Mount without writing in /etc/mtab. This is necessary for example when /etc is on a read-only filesystem." What is the difference between mount -o bind and mount --bind ...if there are Let's suppose i don't know there is a partition mounted using -o bind --no-mtab...where can I find if there is any mound point with bind ? The only way i can detect this is grep user /proc/mounts but in that line there is no info abut bind. Thank you.

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• Understanding !d command in sed with respect to saves

  - by richardh

  I have a directory of tab-delimited text files and some have comments in the first few lines that I would like to delete. I know that the first good line starts with "Mark" so I can use /^Mark/,$!d to delete these comments. After this deletion I have several other replacements that I make in the (new) first line that has variable names. My question is, why do I have to save sed's output to get my script to work? I understand that if I line is deleted, then the output doesn't proceed downstream because there is no output. But if I don't delete (i.e., !d) then why do I have to save to file? Thanks! Here is my shell script. (I'm a sed newbie, so any other feedback is also appreciated.) #!/bin/bash for file in *.txt; do mv $file $file.old1 sed -e '/^Mark/,$!d' $file.old1 > $file.old2 sed -e '1s/\([Ss]\)hareholder/\1hrhldr/g'\ -e '1s/\([Ii]\)mmediate/\1mmdt/g'\ -e '1s/\([Nn]\)umber/\1o/g'\ -e '1s/\([Cc]\)ompany/\1o/g'\ -e '1s/\([Ii]\)nformation/\1nfo/g'\ -e '1s/\([Pp]\)ercentage/\1ct/g'\ -e '1s/\([Dd]\)omestic/\1om/g'\ -e '1s/\([Gg]\)lobal/\1lbl/g'\ -e '1s/\([Cc]\)ountry/\1ntry/g'\ -e '1s/\([Ss]\)ource/\1rc/g'\ -e '1s/\([Oo]\)wnership/\1wnrshp/g'\ -e '1s/\([Uu]\)ltimate/\1ltmt/g'\ -e '1s/\([Ii]\)ncorporation/\1ncorp/g'\ -e '1s/\([Tt]\)otal/\1ot/g'\ -e '1s/\([Dd]\)irect/\1ir/g'\ $file.old2 > $file rm -f $file.old* done

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• Understanding why a 450W power supply is destroying my ATX motherboards but not mATX

  - by T. Webster

  Maybe I'm missing something really obvious here, but after going through 3 new motherboards in trying to build my new machine, I'm finally certain that the 450W power supply I bought has been destroying them. It seems like it should be simple: just connect the connectors where they fit and switch the thing on. But today after hooking it to my ASUS Sabertooth 990FX TUF Series Motherboard and switching it on, I could see and smell the smoke coming out of the motherboard. What I don't get is why I can hook this same 450W power supply up to my mATX motherboard and not run into the same problem. What am I missing here? Where on the box or manual is this? (I have 8x2 GB RAM, AMD FX-4100 3.6GHz CPU, 1 512MB ATI graphics card, 1 WD 7200 RPM SATA hard drive. )

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• Understanding ESXi and Memory Usage

  - by John

  Hi, I am currently testing VMWare ESXi on a test machine. My host machine has 4gigs of ram. I have three guests and each is assigned a memory limit of 1 GB (and only 512 MB reserved). The host summary screen shows a memory capacity of 4082.55 MB and a usage of 2828 MB with two guests running. This seems to make sense, two gigs for each VM plus an overhead for the host. 800MB seems high but that is still reasonable. But on the Resource Allocation Screen I see a memory capacity of 2356 MB and an available capacity of 596 MB. Under the configuration tab, memory link I see a physical total of 4082.5 MB, System of 531.5 MB and VM of 3551.0 MB. I have only allocated my VMs for a gig each, and with two VMs running they are taking up almost two times the amount of ram allocated. Why is this, and why does the Resource Allocation screen short change me so much?

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• understanding my site's DNS records

  - by DaveM

  firstly apologies for using the word 'pointage' this is the word my french domain registrar uses so I may have used to wrong term. OK I would like to better understand what is going on on my 'pointage' record on my domain registrars site. for my (currently empty) web site it reports the following details... Type : Host : Destination A : www.mydomain.org : 62.210.176.146 A : mail.mydomain.org : 84.246.225.176 Mx : .mydomain.org : mail.mydomain.org I think I understand the MX record, that simply relays anything onto the mail.mydomain.org location. However why are the destination for the www and mail domains different. Even more confusing (for me) is the fact that if I ping either of www.mydomain.org or mail.mydomain.org the ping returns a different IP address. This IP address is consistent with that of my server (ie 92.39.247.92). So what exactly is going on ? I'm sure I could find the information on the web,I've read a few thing on the debianhelp site regarding DNS records, and it seems to suggest that the record should be a reverse lookup, but certains isn't the reverse of my servers IP ? but I don't what I should be looking for, so links to docs and search terms for google will be happily accepteed (even though they go against the grain of SO answers to question). thanks in advance. David. ps. I should add that everything seems to work just fine, and I've just descovered this part of the management page of my registrar. Edit: Addition of DNS records and ping results. The DNS record for the site. From what I've read there should only realy be a single 'A' record, so has something gone wrong ? should I change it (remove the extras and then just point www.facilitee.org - .facilitee.org and mail.facilitee.org - .facilitee.org here is the DNS record A www.facilitee.org ? 92.39.247.92 A .facilitee.org ? 92.39.247.92 A mail.facilitee.org ? 92.39.247.92 A webmail.facilitee.org ? 92.39.247.92 MX .facilitee.org ? mail.facilitee.org ping results... ~$ ping www.facilitee.org PING www.facilitee.org (92.39.247.92) 56(84) bytes of data. 64 bytes from vps4576-cloud.dns26.com (92.39.247.92): ~$ ping mail.facilitee.org PING mail.facilitee.org (92.39.247.92) 56(84) bytes of data. 64 bytes from vps4576-cloud.dns26.com (92.39.247.92): So the DNS and the ping correspond, but the 'pointage' doesn't. ~ how can I get a report of the pointage records other than from my registrar ?

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• Understanding connection tracking in iptables

  - by Matt

  I'm after some clarification of the state/connection tracking in iptables. What is the difference between these rules? iptables -A FORWARD -m state --state ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT iptables -A FORWARD -m conntrack --ctstate ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT Is connection tracking turned on when a packet is first matched containing -m state --state BLA , or is connection tracking always on? Can/Should connection state be used for fast matching like below? e.g. suppose this is some sort of router/firewall (no nat). # Default DROP policy iptables -P INPUT DROP iptables -P OUTPUT DROP iptables -P FORWARD DROP # Drop invalid iptables -A FORWARD -m state --state INVALID -j DROP # Accept established,related connections iptables -A FORWARD -m state --state ESTABLISHED,RELATED -j ACCEPT # Allow ssh through, track connection iptables -A FORWARD -p tcp --syn --dport 22 -m state --state NEW -j ACCEPT

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• Understanding exim configuration files

  - by bobobobo

  So, I want to understand what's going on with this Exim configuration directory. In /etc/exim4, there's: * exim4.conf.template * update-exim4.conf.conf * conf.d The conf.d has a mess of directories and files, and inside each are a bunch of if statements which I find really different. For example: maildir_home: debug_print = "T: maildir_home for $local_part@$domain" driver = appendfile .ifdef MAILDIR_HOME_MAILDIR_LOCATION directory = MAILDIR_HOME_MAILDIR_LOCATION .else directory = $home/Maildir .endif .ifdef MAILDIR_HOME_CREATE_DIRECTORY create_directory .endif .ifdef MAILDIR_HOME_CREATE_FILE My question is, where do the CAPS VARIABLES get defined how can I change them why are there so many if statements in these configuration files?

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• NAT : understanding about interconnection

  - by PITCHY

  English version below J'ai 2 routeurs A et B relié en série avec les ip respectives ( 10.0.0.1/30 10.0.0.2/30) sur le routeur A j'ai activé la fonction NAT avec un pool (200.0.0.1 - 200.0.0.15/28). Lorsque je sors je prends donc un ip du pool par exemple 200.0.0.10. Comment ça fonctionne sachant que ma nouvelle ip (200.0.0.10) ne se trouve pas sur le meme réseau que mon interface de destination (10.0.0.2)? English: I have 2 routers A and B, interconnected with a serial connection, with the ip's 10.0.0.1/30 for A and 10.0.0.2/30 for B. On router A NAT was activated with the pool 200.0.0.1 - 200.0.0.15/28. When connection to this router, I get an ip from the pool, for example 200.0.0.10. Knowing my new ip is 200.0.0.10, which is not on the same network as my destination interface (10.0.0.2), how can this work?

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• Understanding Unix Permissions (w/ ACL)

  - by Dr. DOT

  I am trying to set permissions on my server properly. Currently I have a number of directories and files chmod'd at 0777 -- but I am not comfortable with it being this way. So at the advice of a serverfault specialist, I had my hosting provider install ACL on my shared virtual server. When I FTP to the server as my FTP user account "abc", I can do everything I need to do (and rightfully so) because all my dirs and files are owned by "abc", the group is "abc", and the 1st octet is set to 7 (rwx). That much I get. But here's where it gets dark gray for me. PHP is set to user "nobody". so when someone browses on of my web pages that either ends in .php or has some embedded PHP, I assume the last octet controls the access. Because all my dirs and files are owned by "abc" and assigned to group "abc", if the last octet was a 4 (r--) then the server would let the browser read the file. If it were a 6 (rw-) then the server would let the browser also write to the file or directory, correct? what if the web document does not end in .php or does not have any PHP embedded? What is the user then? how can I use ACL to not set the permission to 6 (rw-) or even 7 (rwx)? [not sure what execute does or means] Just looking for some sort of policy settings to best lock down my dirs and files while allowing my PHP scripts to do uploads and write to files (so my users don't call me to tell me "permission denied". Ok, thanks to anyone out there willing to lend me a hand. It is greatly appreciated.

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